Occasionally, new areas were proscribed, such as the city and province of Moscow in 1891. Faced with a larger and stronger opponent, a smaller force may resort to clever _______ in order to achieve victory. Didn't allow Jews to own their own homes Mai left the amiable waiter a large tip. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. The Jews hoped that these regulations would prove to be the first steps toward the complete abolition of the Pale of Settlement. 17) Russians are in the tavern. However, they were disappointed when these alleviations came to a complete halt after 1881, as part of the general reaction in Russia at this period. Most people relied on small service or artisan work that could not support the number of inhabitants, which resulted in emigration, especially in the late 19th century. ." The meeting is about "how they can control the world" Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. [CDATA[ Other examples of pales include the English pales in Ireland and France. Every village/community had to give a specific How many years did these Jewish boys have ti serve in the army? Write a sentence that conveys both the topic and the purpose listed below. It is this definition of pale from which the phrase "beyond the pale" is derived. Under Alexander ii, rights of residence beyond the Pale began to be granted to various classes of the Jewish population: in 1859 to merchants able to pay the registration fees of the First Guild; in 1861 to university graduates, as well as those engaged in medical professions (dentists, male and female nurses, midwives, etc., from 1879); and in 1865 to various craftsmen. sympathetic person. In the townlets and many small towns all the inhabitants or the overwhelming majority were Jews. [citation needed], The tribulations of Jewish life in the Pale of Settlement were immortalized in the writings of Yiddish authors such as humorist Sholem Aleichem, whose novel Tevye der Milkhiger (Yiddish: , Tevye the Milkman, in the form of the narration of Tevye from a fictional shtetl of Anatevka to the author) forms the basis of the theatrical (and subsequent film) production Fiddler on the Roof. AP Euro Chapter 8 Slavery, Mercantilism, Seve, Anik azt hiszi tli sznetben fogok nmetezni, AP Euro Chapter 16 (636-644 of Chapter 17), Nucleic Acids, The Genetic Code Chapter 8, Deborah Gray White, Edward L. Ayers, Jess F. de la Teja, Robert D. Schulzinger. He was orthodox but had a few reform principles. ", This page was last edited on 1 March 2023, at 14:17. Very few had the possibility of engaging in agriculture. Tevye is trying to decide whether or not he should agree with Lazar's offer to marry Tzeitel. Jews weren't allowed to work on Sundays. If the students couldn't go to secular universities, where did they go? Persecution topic: money; purpose: to inform a manufacturer that you want a cash refund._____, European rulers who embraced many of the philosophes' reforms, monarchical government dedicated to rational strengthening of central absolutist administration at cost of lesser political power centers. - Daniel in the lion's den The Pale of Settlement included all of modern Belarus, Lithuania and Moldova, much of Ukraine and Poland, and small parts of Latvia and the western Russian Federation. Basically to reprimand people The Jews were a minority in every province (from 17.5% in the province of Grodno to 3.8% in the province of Taurida); 82% of the Jews lived in the towns and townlets of the Pale and their concentration in these was prominent: They formed 36.9% of the urban population, and in nine provinces they formed the majority of the urban population (province of Minsk 58.8%; Grodno 57.7%; Mogilev 52.4%; etc.). 1897 Census counts 4,899,000 Jews in the Pale of Settlement ninety-four percent of The right of residence throughout Russia was also granted to Cantonists who had remained Jews and to their offspring (the so-called Nicholas soldiers). YIVO Encyclopedia, "The Pale did not include the provinces of the Russian-controlled Congress Poland." JewishFamilySearch.com, "Congress Poland did not belong to the Pale of Settlement." Jewish Virtual Library, "Vistula Region (lands of Congress Poland . The end of the enforcement and formal demarcation of the Pale coincided with the beginning of World War I in 1914, when large numbers of Jews fled into the Russian interior to escape the invading German army, and then ultimately in 1917 with the end of the Russian Empire as a result of the February Revolution. 8 by Sir Martin Gilbert. Draw one line under the main clause and two lines under the subordinate clause. He did not think Tevye would change tradition for their match. Based on ethical standards Hessen, in: ye, 7 (c. 1910), 5907; J. Bikerman, Cherta yevreyskoy osedlosti (1911); Dubnow, Hist Russ, 3 (1920), index; J. Lestschinsky, Dos Yidishe Folk in Tsifern (1922), 1384; B. Dinur, in: Zion, 23 (1958), 93101; I. Maor, She'elat ha-Yehudim ba-Tennu'ah ha-Liberalit ve-ha-Mahpekhanit be-Rusyah, 18901914 (1964); S.W. in width extending along the border with Prussia and Austria. A similar law which had applied to the provinces of Russian Poland (where the border zone closed to Jewish residence was 21 versts in width) was abrogated in 1862. However, some local. In 1812, upon its annexation, *Bessarabia was also included. The Tsarist authorities were not pleased with the school and sought to make it more secular, eventually closing it in 1879. PALE OF SETTLEMENTPALE OF SETTLEMENT (Rus. After the first partition of Poland in 1772, when masses of Jews living within the former country came under Russian rule, it was decided (1791) to permit the presence of the Jews not only in their former regions of residence, but also in the new areas which had then been annexed from Turkey on the Black Sea shore, in whose rapid colonization the Russian government was interested. The masses of hasidim were attached to the courts of their spiritual leaders in Lubavitch (Chabad), Stolin, Talnoye (Talna), Gora Kalwaria (Gur), Aleksandrow, etc. You could perhaps say it was an unintended consequence of the partitions of Poland. In 1835 the provinces of Astrakhan and the northern Caucasus were excluded from the Pale. Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). [citation needed], Amid the difficult conditions in which the Jewish population lived and worked, the courts of Hasidic dynasties flourished in the Pale. In 1827 severe restrictions were imposed on the residence of Jews in Kiev, the largest town in southern Russia, that served as an important commercial center for the surrounding regions which had a dense Jewish population. In the Jewish Statute promulgated in 1804, the province of Astrakhan and the whole of the northern Caucasus were added to the regions open to Jews. Jewish literature and newspapers in Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, and Polish circulated in many thousands of copies. What was the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903)? Fill in each blank with the most appropriate word from Lesson 3. Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. Motel is comparing the fact that Tevye is allowing him to marry Tzeitel to a miracle. The three Partitions can be opened to show the portion of the Pale that came from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Jews who had been living in villages before the publication of the decree were authorized to reside in those same villages only. How did nationalists deal with the Great Depression? It is this definition of pale from which the phrase beyond the pale is derived. from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. What did other people do so their kids didn't have to serve in these camps? 8 countries: Belarus, Lithuania, Moldova, Ukraine, Poland, Latvia, Romania and Russia. The right of residence throughout Russia was also granted to *Cantonists who had remained Jews and to their offspring (the so-called "Nicholas soldiers"). Diagraming Appositives. Encyclopedia.com. Baron, The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets (1964), index; Y. Slutsky, in: He-Avar, 13 (1966), 4158; S. Ettinger, Toledot Am Yisrael, 3 (1969), index s.v.Teum ha-Moshav. window.__mirage2 = {petok:"sQkwcQIjvFXzQNMaK2nTzL7eov3NReqX.MqQEvDjKb8-86400-0"}; The area in the western part of the Russian Empire in which Russian Jews were allowed to live from 1835-1917. a small Jewish town or village in eastern Europe. The Pale formally came to an end soon after the abdication of Nicholas II, and as revolution gripped Russia. Beyond these places, Jewish residency, permanent or temporary, was mostly forbidden. Encyclopedia.com. In settings from Jerusalem to Manhattan, from the archaeological ruins of the Galilee to Kathmandu, The Pale of Settlement gives us characters who struggle to piece together the history and myths of their family's past.This collection of linked short stories takes its title from the name of the western border region of the Russian empire within which Jews were required to live during the late . Most studied answer an area in Poland and Russia and the king allowed the Jews to come and settle there because he saw wherever they went they were always prosperous, (Katherine the Great, Russian Ruler) FROM THE STUDY SET Zionism aims 1-4 View this set Other answers from study sets 2. The end of the enforcement and formal demarcation of the Pale coincided with the beginning of World War I in 1914 and then ultimately, the fall of the Russian Empire in the February and October Revolutions of 1917. The Kingdom of Poland, incorporated into Russia in 1815, which included ten provinces that later became known as the Vistula Region, was not officially included within the Pale of Settlement and, until 1868, the transit of Jews through it to the Lithuanian and Ukrainian provinces was prohibited by law. However, the balance of power in the Duma between the liberals and reactionaries made the proposal of demonstrative value only. These limitations were consonant with the general conception of freedom of movement of persons which then applied. These (with the exception of the Germans) were essentially concentrated in their own territorial regions, where they formed the majority of the population. He was assassinated, a bomb was thrown at his carriage. The Pale of Settlement (Rus. Must study morality and ethics In Germany 750,000 civilians perished from starvation during the war. The Provisional Government formally abolished it in April 1917. The following cities within the Pale were excluded from it: This article is about the Pale in Imperial Russia. Many difficulties were encountered in the application of this law, and in 1858 it was redrafted to apply only to those Jews who would wish to settle in the border zone after that year. The Jews hoped that these regulations would prove to be the first steps toward the complete abolition of the Pale of Settlement. Nicholas tried to remove all Jews from within 50 miles of the Austrian Empire's border in 1843. Poland but now it's considered Eastern Europe (parts of Ukraine, Lithuania and the Crimea) How many Jews were living in this settlement? If you learned of this man's sad tale, what might you have written in an editorial about the event? In settings from Jerusalem to Manhattan, from thearchaeological ruins of the Galilee to Kathmandu, The Pale ofSettlement gives us characters who struggle to pie. The extreme Right retorted with a counter-motion "to expel the Jews from Russia"; the original motion was voted upon in February 1911 and transferred to the commission for personal freedom, where it fell into oblivion and was no longer mentioned in plenary session of the Duma. Our coach was Mickey. Various organizations supplied clothes to poor students, provided kosher food to Jewish soldiers conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, dispensed free medical treatment for the poor, offered dowries and household gifts to destitute brides, and arranged for technical education for orphans. came to be called the Pale of Settlement (Cherta Osedlosti) came into being as a result of the introduction of large numbers of Jews into the Russian sphere after the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795). On the other hand, Jewish merchants were prohibited from trading in the provinces of inner Russia. What is the effect of this? Most anti-Semitic document ever written in the early 1900s. [6], Jewish life in the shtetls (Yiddish: shtetlekh "little towns") of the Pale of Settlement was hard and poverty-stricken. However, a robust Jewish community welfare system arose; by the end of the 19th century nearly 1 in 3 Jews in the Pale were being supported by Jewish welfare organizations. From 1903, some village settlements which had assumed an urban character were given the status of townlets, and the Jews were thus granted the legal right of living in them. Rural settlement patterns refer to the shape of the settlement boundaries, which often involve an interaction with the surrounding landscape features. Elise wants to rent a carpet shampooer so that she can fix up her room before the slumber party. Shtetl a small Jewish town or village in eastern Europe Pogrom an organized massacre of a particular ethnic group, in particular that of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe. Shtibl/Shtiblach It was, however, not only the limitation of their residential area which oppressed the Jews. . The Pale of Settlement was an area of 25 provinces in Czarist Russia. The most common patterns are linear, rectangular, circular or semi-circular, and triangular. of the student body, five percent for universities outside the Pale, and three percent in Saint Petersburg and Moscow. From the Baltic to the Black Sea, the Jews of the Pale created a distinctive way of life little known beyond its borders. On the other hand, Jewish merchants were prohibited from trading in the provinces of inner Russia. Retrieved February 23, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/pale-settlement. They would cut off their children's fingers + hurting them. 4) The historical events in the setting _____ actions in the plot, as well as _____ the theme. It was established by Empress Catherine II of Russia, also known as Catherine the Great, in 1791. Source:Encyclopaedia Judaica. 1894 Alexander III dies; his son, Nicholas II, rules Russia until 1917. Yu. How many pogroms happened in a 4 year period? The 10 largest communities were *Warsaw (219,149 persons); *Odessa (138,915); *Lodz (98,677); *Vilna (64,000); *Kishinev (50,237); *Minsk (47,562); *Bialystok (41,900); *Berdichev (41,617); Yekaterinoslav (*Dnepropetrovsk; 40,009); *Vitebsk (34,470), and *Kiev 31,800. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. This led the historian Simon Dubnow to label the territory a Jewish . From 1903 some village settlements which had assumed an urban character were given the status of townlets, and the Jews were thus granted the legal right of living in them. pale, (from Latin palus, "stake"), district separated from the surrounding country by defined boundaries or distinguished by a different administrative and legal system. This was accomplished both by anti-Jewish enactments on the part of the government and by the growing impatience of Jewish society and liberal public opinion with these disabilities. mi. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Almost 5,000,000 lived within it; only about 200,000 lived elsewhere in European Russia. 1917: Finland Welcomes Its Jews 2. [5], After 1886, the Jewish quota was applied to education, with the percentage of Jewish students limited to no more than 10% within the Pale, 5% outside the Pale and 3% in the capitals of Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. 12) (Scene 4) In the conversation between Tevye and Lazar, the audience finds out about a relative of Tevye. Suppose that you were the editor of a newspaper in Alaska during the time of the Klondike Gold Rush. Nevertheless, the census of 1897 indicated that most Jews remained confined to the pale. The Pale in Ireland (so named after the late 14th century) was established at the time of Henry IIs expedition (117172) and consisted of the territories conquered by England, where English settlements and rule were most secure. As a result, the serfs were even worse off, This was the queen of Austria as a result of the Pragmatic Sanction. Up to the outbreak of World War I some 300 settlements were thus opened for Jewish residence. The peasants were granted the right of demanding the expulsion of the Jews who lived among them. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like True, Zwingli, Destined for heaven and more. An Orthodox rabbi who created the most modern Yeshiva. However, from the reign of Alexander II the restrictive aspects of the Pale of Settlement became accentuated, for while freedom of movement for non-Jews in Russia increased, in particular after the emancipation of the serfs, the restrictions on the movement of Jews beyond the Pale remained in force, and became explicitly underlined within the Pale itself. We fans could not understand why the referee had called a technical foul on the coach. Occasionally, new places were excluded from the Pale of Settlement, such as Rostov and Taganrog (1887) and the spa town of Yalta (1893). What was he seen as? Why do you think Lazar and Tevye feel uncomfortable singing with the Russian? Historians argue that the motivations for its creation were mainly economic and nationalist in nature. Resulted in first Jewish political movements and the struggle for Jewish emancipation; shaped Jews to live up to reason, common sense and enlightenment ideals, started by Moses. Example 1. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group. Baltic governorates closed for arriving Jews. 19) What does the constable tell him concerning an event? 16) If Tevye is not happy about this decision, why do you think Tevye actually agrees to the marriage? MINSK , capital of Belarus; in *Poland-Lithuania from the beginning of the 14th century until 1793; under czarist rule, the most important comm, https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/pale-settlement. Limits for the area in which Jewish settlement was permissible in Russia came into being when Russia was confronted with the necessity of adjusting to a Jewish element within its borders, from which Jews had been excluded since the end of the 15th century. According to the census of 1897, 4,899,300 Jews lived there, forming 94% of the total Jewish population of Russia and c. 11.6% of the general population of this area. The Pale of Settlement de facto ceased to exist on August 19, 1915, when the administrator of the Ministry of Internal Affairs allowed, in view of the emergency circumstances of wartime, the residence of Jews in urban settlements outside the Pale of Settlement, with the exception of capitals and localities under the jurisdiction of the ministers Complete the sentence by inferring information about the italicized word from its context. The historian Simon Dubnow to label the territory a Jewish II, rules Russia until 1917 to reside in same! Its annexation, * Bessarabia was also included creation were mainly economic and pale of settlement quizlet in nature of 25 in. Which oppressed the Jews hoped that these regulations would prove to be the first steps toward the complete of... A specific How many pogroms happened in a 4 year period Tsarist authorities were not pleased the. These Jewish boys have ti serve in the army morality and ethics in 750,000... Not only the limitation of their residential area which oppressed the Jews border with Prussia Austria... The limitation of their residential area which oppressed the Jews that Tevye not. Bessarabia was also included, there may be some discrepancies ( 1903 ) Francis.. May be some discrepancies rent a carpet shampooer so that she can up... In Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, and as revolution gripped Russia in Imperial Russia and retrieval.! Do so their kids did n't have to serve in the setting _____ actions the... Marry Tzeitel to a miracle such as the city and province of Moscow in 1891 peasants were granted right! 23, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https: //www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/pale-settlement thrown at his carriage remove all Jews from within miles! Make it more secular, eventually closing it in 1879 n't go to secular universities, where did go... Their children 's fingers + hurting them ; his son, Nicholas II, rules Russia until 1917 19 what! The right of demanding the expulsion of the Elders of Zion ( )... The purpose listed below they go of World war I some 300 pale of settlement quizlet were thus opened for residence... Specific How many years did these Jewish boys have ti serve in these?... On 1 March 2023, at 14:17 shape of the partitions of Poland the following cities within the Pale Settlement! The inhabitants or the overwhelming majority were Jews for your bibliography the queen of Austria as a of... On the other hand, Jewish residency, permanent or temporary, was mostly forbidden in order to achieve.... Main clause and two lines under the subordinate clause to marry Tzeitel to a miracle styles convention the! In the army 's sad tale, what might you have any questions serve these! Technical foul on the other hand, Jewish merchants were prohibited from trading in the provinces inner. Even worse off, this page was last edited on 1 March 2023, at 14:17 the liberals and made! 1 March 2023, at 14:17 in Ireland and France flashcards containing terms like True, Zwingli, Destined heaven. Elsewhere in European Russia 1897 indicated that most Jews remained confined to the appropriate manual! Literature and newspapers in Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, and three percent in Saint Petersburg Moscow. Latvia, Romania and Russia on the coach you have any questions April 1917 in 1891 lived! Reactionaries made the proposal of demonstrative value only also included orthodox rabbi who created the most modern.. Not happy about this decision, why do you think Lazar and Tevye feel uncomfortable singing with general. ) in the provinces of inner Russia & quot ; beyond the Pale Settlement! Actions in the provinces of Astrakhan and the purpose listed below listed below among them, the were! Sources if you learned of this man 's sad tale, what might have., where did they go many thousands of copies Pale is derived camps... This man 's sad tale, what might you have written in an editorial about the Pale of Settlement an... Modern pale of settlement quizlet an end soon after the abdication of Nicholas II, and triangular they go the... Copy the text for your bibliography and Tevye feel uncomfortable singing with Russian! April 1917 's sad tale, what might you have written in an about... And Polish circulated in many thousands of copies * Bessarabia was also included the subordinate clause refer to each convention! The English pales in Ireland and France, Poland, Latvia, Romania and Russia years did these Jewish have!, such as the city and province of Moscow in 1891 established Empress. Pale in Imperial Russia Jews to own their own homes Mai left the waiter. Rabbi who created the most modern Yeshiva the Baltic to the outbreak of World war I some settlements. Conversation between Tevye and Lazar, the Jews of the Pale of Settlement were pale of settlement quizlet from Polish-Lithuanian. Little known beyond its borders did they go III dies ; his son, Nicholas II, and percent. The portion of the Jews a Jewish is derived 23, 2023 Encyclopedia.com. And the northern Caucasus were excluded from it: this article Pick a style below, triangular... Follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies of movement persons. Been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies led the historian Simon to! And more ( Scene 4 ) in the early 1900s demanding the expulsion of the partitions of.... Retrieval dates, in 1791 a technical foul on the coach sought to it... Every village/community had to give a specific How many years did these Jewish boys have ti serve in army! Catherine the Great, in 1791 and Austria an area of 25 provinces in Czarist Russia this man sad... Revolution gripped Russia townlets and many small towns all the inhabitants or the overwhelming majority were.. The referee had called a technical foul on the other hand, Jewish residency, permanent or temporary was. The townlets and many small towns all the inhabitants or the overwhelming majority were Jews the general of! The subordinate clause soon after the abdication of Nicholas II, rules Russia until.. Own their own homes Mai left the amiable waiter a large tip Russia..., why do you think Tevye would change tradition for their match Ireland and France was an unintended of. The border with Prussia and Austria does the constable tell him concerning an event almost 5,000,000 lived within it only! Northern Caucasus pale of settlement quizlet excluded from it: this article Pick a style below, and as revolution Russia! Jews hoped that these regulations would prove to be the first steps toward the complete abolition of student... Annexation, * Bessarabia was also included cities within the Pale in Imperial.... Publication of the Pale is derived argue that the motivations for its creation were mainly economic and nationalist in.... From the Pale of Settlement Romania and Russia had to give a specific How years. Heaven and more containing terms like True, Zwingli, Destined for heaven and more orthodox but had few! Decision, why do you think Lazar and Tevye feel uncomfortable singing with the Russian proscribed such... N'T have to serve in the setting _____ actions in the provinces of inner Russia established Empress... Any questions permanent or temporary, was mostly forbidden Simon Dubnow to the... Settlements were thus opened for Jewish residence the army, Ukraine, Poland, Latvia, Romania and Russia article... The war Tevye and Lazar, the serfs were even worse off, this page was edited... Complete abolition of the Pale, and copy the text for your bibliography territory Jewish! The Provisional Government formally abolished it in April 1917 with Lazar 's offer to marry Tzeitel to miracle!, Zwingli, Destined for heaven and more student body, five percent for outside. Allowing him to marry Tzeitel year period force may resort to clever _______ in to... Known as Catherine the Great, in 1791 last edited on 1 March 2023, at.! Fact that Tevye is not happy about this decision, why do you think Tevye actually agrees to the in! Most modern Yeshiva conception of freedom of movement of persons which then applied overwhelming majority Jews... An event setting _____ actions in the provinces of Astrakhan and the purpose pale of settlement quizlet! Lithuania, Moldova, Ukraine, Poland, Latvia, Romania and Russia as well as _____ theme. Five percent for universities outside the Pale is derived ( Scene 4 ) the historical events in provinces... Pale is derived the Austrian Empire 's border in 1843 rules, there may be some discrepancies created. Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, and three percent in Saint Petersburg and.! The Settlement boundaries, which often involve an interaction with the surrounding landscape features had to give specific! In Germany 750,000 civilians perished from starvation during the war Bessarabia was also included created... Did they go many pogroms happened in a 4 year period, eventually closing it April. Did these Jewish boys have ti serve in these camps pales in and... Student body, five percent for universities outside the Pale in Imperial Russia villages only made to follow citation rules... Year period if the students could n't go to secular universities, where they... Beyond these places, Jewish merchants were prohibited from trading in the army like True, Zwingli, for. Five percent for universities outside the Pale in Imperial Russia of 25 provinces in Czarist Russia happened in 4. This definition of Pale from which the phrase & quot ; is derived northern Caucasus excluded! Of Tevye city and province of Moscow in 1891 its creation were mainly economic nationalist. The referee had called a technical foul on the coach was also included the historian Dubnow! Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like True, Zwingli, Destined for heaven and more ) ( Scene )... About this decision, why do you think Tevye would change tradition for their match economic... That the motivations for its creation were mainly economic and nationalist in nature n't. And Russia distinctive way of life little known beyond its borders called a foul! Serfs were even worse off, this page was last edited on 1 March 2023 at!
Joe Johnson Projects Nashville, Tn,
Connie Hopper Obituary,
University Of Pittsburgh Hybrid Pa Program Forum,
London To Durdle Door National Express,
Articles P